With or without the Mask: Age Differences in Perceived Trustworthiness and Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the obligation to wear surgical face masks have affected social interactions. Wearing a mask can cause impairments in face identification, emotion recognition, and trait impressions. The present study investigated, during the COVID-19 period, age-related differences in perceived trustworthiness (Study 1) and health (Study 2) when viewing faces with or without masks. Younger (YAs, 18-35 years) and older (OAs, over 65 years) adults' ratings were compared. Through a web-based platform, a series of neutral younger and older faces (YFs vs. OFs) were presented, on a computer screen, with or without a mask (Mask vs. No-Mask), and participants were asked to rate them on a 7-point scale. Furthermore, data collected during the pandemic (Mask and No-Mask conditions) were compared with ratings obtained before it (Pre-COVID condition). Perceived trustworthiness was lower in the No-Mask condition for both age groups compared to Mask and Pre-COVID conditions, which did not differ. For health ratings, no differences emerged for OAs between the conditions, whereas YAs' ratings were lower in both the Mask and No-Mask conditions compared to the Pre-COVID condition. The fear of contracting COVID-19 affected both trustworthiness and health ratings. Wearing a surgical face mask affects trait impressions for YAs and OAs, partly due to the fear of COVID-19. Trait impressions are also influenced by the age of the face to be evaluated.

How Has COVID-19 Affected Mental Health and Lifestyle Behaviors after 2 Years? The Third Step of a Longitudinal Study of Italian Citizens.

The COVID-19 pandemic and its protective measures had a tremendous effect on the general population's mental health and deeply affected their lifestyle. The present study carried out a longitudinal analysis to evaluate the long-lasting psychological effects of the pandemic and its impact on the general population's day-to-day routine. Three points in time were considered: the initial period of the lockdown (T1; n = 2766; March 2020), the final period of the lockdown (T2; n = 439; May 2020) and two years after the lockdown (T3; n = 268; July 2022). Frequency analyses were carried out to examine which behavioral changes were maintained following the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown; furthermore, a repeated measures ANOVA test was run to measure differences in depression, stress, and anxiety levels between the three periods considered; lastly, multivariable ordinal logistic regression analyses were carried out to examine which variables were associated with psychological distress more than two years after the lockdown. The results highlighted that depression at T3 was associated with depression at T2 and negative affect, whereas stress at T3 was associated with stress at T2 and detachment. The psychological effects and lifestyle changes are also discussed.

Exploring vaccine hesitancy: the twofold role of critical thinking.

With the progress of the vaccination campaign against the SARS-COV-2, we are ever closer to reaching that part of the population that refuses or is hesitant about vaccination. This study investigated the association between critical thinking motivation factors (i.e., intrinsic value of critical thinking and expectancy of one's critical thinking ability), conspiracy mentality, intolerance of uncertainty and hesitancy toward vaccination. A sample of 390 participants completed an online survey during April 2021. Across participants, results indicate that conspiracy mentality and expectancy about personal ability as a critical thinker positively predict vaccine hesitancy. On the contrary, the intrinsic value attributed to critical thinking, intolerance of uncertainty, and education are negatively associated with hesitancy. While the findings confirm existing evidence, particularly on the detrimental role of conspiracy mentality on vaccine acceptance, they also shed light on the double-faced role exercised by critical thinking. Practical implications and future directions are discussed. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12144-022-04165-w.

Aging and Psychological Well-Being: The Possible Role of Inhibition Skills.

(1) Background: Psychological well-being (PWB) is a multidimensional construct which is a key protective factor against chronic diseases in older adults. Numerous psychological and cognitive factors can influence older people's PWB. However, while most studies have explored the effect of general cognition, only a few investigated the role of specific cognitive functions such as the efficiency of executive functions. Thus, the present study aimed to directly explore the relationships between PWB, age, and the core executive functions (namely working memory, flexibility, and inhibition). (2) Methods: A sample of 51 healthy older adults (age range: 60-88) were enrolled and tested both for PWB (by Ryff's psychological well-being scale) and the core executive functions (by the Digit span backward, the Trail Making Test, and the Stroop test). (3) Results: Age and inhibitory skills are negatively correlated to the personal growth subscale of the PWB scale. Moreover, a hierarchical regression analysis showed that inhibition, but not working memory and flexibility, predicted the sense of continued growth and development (personal growth) of older adults, even after controlling for age and educational levels. Limitations and implications for future research and prevention interventions are discussed.

Face Mask Reduces the Effect of Proposer’s (Un)Trustworthiness on Intertemporal and Risky Choices

Previous literature suggested that individuals increase temporal and risk discounting at the presence of a proposer whose face is perceived as untrustworthy, suggesting the activation of protective choice patterns. By the way, the COVID-19 pandemic has substantially transformed the way we interact with other people, even bringing us into situations where the face of the person making a proposal is not fully visible, because of the mask. With the current study, we aimed at verifying if the effect of proposer’s facial (un)trustworthiness on discounting behavior is modulated by mask wearing. In two different experiments, participants performed traditional delay and probability discounting tasks with masked proposers manipulated across trustworthiness levels. Results highlighted that, even after checking for subject-specific emotion recognition ability with masked faces, the presence of a masked untrustworthy proposer increases both delay and probability discounting parameters, although the effect is not statistically significant and smaller than the one detected at the presence of an untrustworthy proposer without a mask. These results suggest that the ability to perceive the proposer’s (un)trustworthiness is affected by the mask, with a consequent less strong effect of proposer’s (un)trustworthiness on choice behavior on both intertemporal and risky choices. Limits and possible implications are outlined and discussed.

How Were Healthcare Workers after Anti-SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination? A Study of the Emotional Side Effects of Vaccination.

Anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines appear to be the only escape from the COVID-19 pandemic. As healthcare workers were among the first in society to be vaccinated, understanding their emotional status post-vaccination is fundamental to the promotion of COVID-19 vaccines among the rest of society. The aims of this study were to investigate the predictors of positive and negative emotions experienced by healthcare workers after being vaccinated and to understand whether those emotions were related to the modalities of vaccine promotion within the community. A cohort of 5790 Italian healthcare workers completed an original online survey regarding their experience with anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and reported on a series of personal and environmental factors. The data obtained show that increased risk perception of COVID-19, vaccine confidence and receipt of greater quantities of information regarding vaccines are predictors of a more positive emotional state post-vaccination. Predictors of a more negative emotional state are older age, lower education, lower confidence and receipt of smaller quantities of information, in addition to neurotic personality traits and high risk perception of COVID-19. Importantly, vaccination promotion may be favoured by a happy emotional status after vaccination. This study can serve as a source of guidelines for the promotion of COVID-19 vaccination among healthcare workers and laypeople.

Associations between misinformation around COVID-19 pandemic, severity of social isolation, and cognitive impairment

Background In the past year, new research has focused on the degree of misinformation regarding the COVID-19 pandemic in younger and older adults. However, no study has assessed how social isolation and cognitive status influence misinformation regarding the COVID-19 pandemic. For this reason, we sought to investigate the differences in misinformation on the current pandemic in older individuals with and without cognitive impairment and social isolation in Boston, MA (United States) and Chieti (Italy). Method Data has been obtained from 49 subjects from the Boston cohort and 138 from the Italian cohort. Both healthy older adults and individuals diagnosed with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) or Alzheimer?s Disease (AD) Dementia were included. Cognitive status was assessed with a telephone administered neuropsychological battery and blind MoCA. Social isolation was evaluated with the Lubben social isolation scale and misinformation with a COVID-19 Misinformation Questionnaire. Associations between these variables were assessed using Pearson correlation and binary logistic regression. Result 35 participants in our sample (26%) met the cutoff for social isolation. 95 subjects (70%) were cognitively impaired. Subjects that were at a higher risk of being socially isolated were more cognitively impaired (r=0.43, N=181, p<.001). Also, they were less likely to know the correct age group that is most affected by the pandemic (b =0.06;p <0.05) and were less likely to feel informed about protective measures that should be taken to avoid contracting COVID-19 (r=0.24, N=181, p<.001). Subjects that were more cognitively impaired were more likely to think that the COVID-19 was a bioweapon developed by a government or terrorist organization (b =0.15;p <.001) and were more likely to incorrectly think that a person could not be COVID-19 positive and be asymptomatic (b =0.17;p <.01). More analysis will be completed once recruitment is completed. Conclusion Social isolation and cognitive impairment were associated with a higher degree of misinformation about COVID-19 and less information about protective measures against infection, making patients with these characteristics a vulnerable population during the current pandemic.

Public opinion in vaccine allocation priority: who comes first?

OBJECTIVE: We investigated people's preferences in COVID-19 vaccine allocation priority, comparing different social categories based on age and occupation. Vaccine allocation preferences were related to perceived health vulnerability and economic backlash (economic negative consequences) endured by the different social groups during the pandemic. In-group favoritism in vaccine allocation preferences was analyzed. DESIGN: Data were collected through an online survey in Italy (n = 506) before the start of the vaccination campaign. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Vaccine allocation preferences, health vulnerability, and economic backlash due to COVID-19, measured through ranking tasks. RESULTS: The healthcare workers category was placed at the top of the ranking in vaccine allocation priority by 65% of the respondents. Vaccine allocation priority was related to perceived health vulnerability and not economic difficulties. Limited self-preference effects emerged. People who did not consider healthcare workers a priority (1/5 of the sample) had a lower education level, were more worried about COVID-19 infection risk, and did not trust vaccines. CONCLUSIONS: A consensus emerged on who should be vaccinated first. Governments and policymakers should be aware of these preferences when designing and communicating vaccine allocation plans to predict and foster the public's acceptance of the COVID-19 vaccination programs created by experts.

Emotional, Psychological, and Cognitive Changes Throughout the COVID-19 Pandemic in Italy: Is There an Advantage of Being an Older Adult?

Introduction: The study examined age-related differences between young and older adults' emotional and psychological experience as well as cognitive functioning throughout different phases of the COVID-19 pandemic in Italy. Materials and Methods: Participants were interviewed by phone when confined at home during the national lockdown (T1-May 2020; N = 138 young adults; N = 119 older adults) and after the first wave of contagions, when restrictions were discarded (T2-September 2020; N = 52 young adults; N = 59 older adults). A sub-sample also participated in a third assessment (T3-December 2020). Participants completed questionnaires assessing their emotional and psychological functioning (i.e., positive and negative affect, perceived social and emotional loneliness, resilience) along with memory tasks (Backward Digit Span task and words list recall). Results: Although individuals reported less positive and more negative emotions during the lockdown than at T2, results showed that older adults displayed overall fewer negative emotions and greater resilience than young adults. The latter were those who reported feeling more emotionally lonely when compared to their older counterpart during the lockdown than afterward. Older adults' advantage in emotional and psychological functioning was also confirmed 7 months after the national lockdown. Only age-related differences in favor of young adults for the memory tasks were found. The measures of interest were also susceptible to mood and/or concerns of COVID-19 effects. Discussion: These findings further highlight the age-related advantage of older adults managing the emotional and psychological experience even when facing an unexpected, prolonged, and unpredictable, stressful life event such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Psychological factors and consumer behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic is far more than a health crisis: it has unpredictably changed our whole way of life. As suggested by the analysis of economic data on sales, this dramatic scenario has also heavily impacted individuals' spending levels. To better understand these changes, the present study focused on consumer behavior and its psychological antecedents. Previous studies found that crises differently affect people's willingness to buy necessities products (i.e., utilitarian shopping) and non-necessities products (i.e., hedonic shopping). Therefore, in examining whether changes in spending levels were associated with changes in consumer behavior, we adopted a fine-grained approach disentangling between necessities and non-necessities. We administered an online survey to 3833 participants (age range 18-64) during the first peak period of the contagion in Italy. Consumer behavior toward necessities was predicted by anxiety and COVID-related fear, whereas consumer behavior toward non-necessities was predicted by depression. Furthermore, consumer behavior toward necessities and non-necessities was predicted by personality traits, perceived economic stability, and self-justifications for purchasing. The present study extended our understanding of consumer behavior changes during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results could be helpful to develop marketing strategies that consider psychological factors to meet actual consumers' needs and feelings.

Temporal Discounting of Money and Face Masks During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Hoarding Level.

The current study examines the association of individual hoarding levels with temporal discounting of different commodities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on their hoarding level, participants were assigned to the Hoarding Group (HG) or the Non-Hoarding Group (NHG). Participants performed two delay discounting tasks: a traditional task with monetary options and a modified task, where money was replaced with disposable surgical masks, a needed commodity during the pandemic. Results revealed a stronger preference for immediate commodity, therefore a higher discount rate, when evaluating surgical masks compared to money in the whole sample, and an overall higher tendency in discounting both type of rewards in the NHG compared to the HG. Moreover, non-hoarders discounted money significantly more than hoarders, while no significant differences were detected in the surgical mask version of the task. Possible explanations for this result are discussed in the light of a situational frame that makes salient the notion of scarcity, like the one induced by the COVID-19 pandemic. The hoarding dimension of cluttering was found to be the only dimension to significantly correlate with the discount rate on surgical masks. Altogether, these findings shed light on the role of general hoarding level and specific hoarding dimensions on intertemporal preferences with different commodities by contributing to the theoretical debate about impulsivity in hoarders' behavior. Furthermore, the present results help to understand the general population's preferences during times of crisis, thus contributing to the investigation of the effects of COVID-19 on consumers' behavior.

Caring for People With Dementia Under COVID-19 Restrictions: A Pilot Study on Family Caregivers.

INTRODUCTION: The present pilot study examined to what extent the COVID-19 lockdown affected the behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD) in people with dementia and worsened their family caregivers' distress. The associations between changes in the BPSD of relatives with dementia (RwD) and in their caregivers' distress, and sense of social and emotional loneliness, and resilience were also investigated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty-five caregivers of RwD attending formal healthcare services before the COVID-19 lockdown volunteered for the study, and were interviewed by phone during the lockdown. Caregivers completed the NeuroPsychiatric Inventory (NPI) to assess their care recipients' BPSD and their own distress, and two questionnaires assessing their social and emotional loneliness, and their resilience. RESULTS: No clear changes emerged in either the BPSD of the RwD or the caregivers' distress during lockdown compared with before the pandemic. Caregivers reporting more frequent and severe BPSD in their RwD before the lockdown scored higher on emotional loneliness. Those reporting more frequent and severe BPSD under lockdown, especially men and those taking care of RwD with more advanced dementia, scored higher on both social and emotional loneliness. A significant negative correlation also emerged between caregivers' resilience and changes in their level of distress due to the lockdown, with female caregivers reporting greater resilience. DISCUSSION: Our findings offer preliminary insight on the effects of loneliness and resilience, and on the influence of individual characteristics on the experience and consequences of informal caregiving for RwD in times of restrictions imposed by a pandemic.

Data on the effects of COVID-19 pandemic on people's expectations about their future.

The worldwide spread of the COVID-19 pandemic has unpredictably changed the way people live, by influencing their behaviors and beliefs. This article presents the raw data that have been used to investigate how the pandemic affected people's beliefs and expectations about their future. A total of 3991 participants (18-85 years old) were recruited through an online survey using the Qualtrics platform. The data collection was carried out during the Italian lockdown, between April 1st and April 20th, 2020. This survey collected information about psychological and socioeconomic variables related to the COVID-19 emergency. Respondents filled out a battery of questionnaires that included five measures. Three of the measures were specifically developed by the authors: 1. Expected repercussions of COVID-19; 2. Forethought scale; and 3. Perceived financial resources. The two other measures were standardized questionnaires: the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory Short Version (ZTPI-short) and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). Data from tailored measures on the COVID-19 pandemic reflect people's beliefs about the future, in terms of expectation about the pandemic's effect, estimation of the time needed for the pandemic to resolve, and estimation of how long people could endure the lockdown situation from a financial perspective. The ZTPI questionnaire was administered to measure people's differences in terms of Deviation from Balanced Time Perspective (DBTP). The PANAS questionnaire, instead, was administered to investigate people's differences in terms of emotional mood states. The provided dataset could be useful to other researchers, considering that the data were collected during the lockdown imposed on Italian citizens to face the unprecedented emergency due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, the collected data may help to understand how people coped with the pandemic, both from a psychological and socioeconomic perspective. Finally, this dataset can be included in the broad context of data, procedures, and experimental materials that have been used to expand our knowledge in the study of time perspective, beliefs, and emotions.

"What's next?" Individual differences in expected repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic.

The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the future are hardly predictable, and people differ in terms of expected repercussions on their future. This study investigated individual differences in the pandemic's expected repercussions, with particular attention to a Balanced Time Perspective (BTP). BTP reflects an individual profile with optimal temporal orientations, it is positively associated with mental health, and it has proven to promote successful coping with unexpected crises. We analyzed data from 3991 adults from 18 to 85 years old participating in an online survey conducted during the Italian lockdown. Participants provided information on BTP, affective states, financial resources, and expectations for the future. Multi-group path analysis was used to test the hypothesized model and to explore gender differences. Results showed that people with a more BTP had fewer negative beliefs about COVID-19's consequences on their future life. BTP affected expected repercussions also indirectly, via affects and beliefs. Finally, gender emerged as a significant moderator of some of the relationships highlighted. The present study contributes to the understanding of the psychological reactions to the current health emergency by confirming its impact on several life domains besides health, not only in the present but also in the anticipated future.

Age-related differences in the perception of COVID-19 emergency during the Italian outbreak.

OBJECTIVES: Older adults have been identified as a high-risk population for COVID-19, therefore it is crucial to understand how they perceived and reacted to the emergency. We examined age-related differences in emotions, cognitive attitudes, and behavioral responses to the COVID-19 crisis. Based on the Socioemotional Selectivity Theory, we expected to find a positive approach in older adults, which may translate into lower compliance with restrictive measures.Methods: We analyzed data (n = 306) from a nation-wide online survey conducted between April 1st and April 16th, 2020. We compared young (18-29 years), middle-aged (30-50 years), and older (65-85 years) adults' self-reported emotions, attitudes toward the emergency, and compliance with governmental rules.Results: Older adults showed lower negative emotions than young and middle-aged adults. Also, older adults were more confident about COVID-related information received, more favorable toward the restrictive measures, and perceived lower underestimation of the emergency compared to the other age groups. However, older people anticipated a longer time for the emergency to resolve. No age-related differences in compliance with the rules emerged.Conclusion: Older people showed a positive attitude toward the emergency. This attitude was confined in the here and now and did not extend to expectations for the future. Compliance with rules was high across our sample. However, less compliant individuals were also less confident in COVID-related information received by the media and official sources, suggesting the importance of providing precise and reliable information to promote adherence to restrictive measures.

A 2-Month Follow-Up Study of Psychological Distress among Italian People during the COVID-19 Lockdown.

The spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has called for unprecedented measures, including a national lockdown in Italy. The present study aimed at identifying psychological changes (e.g., changes in depression, stress, and anxiety levels) among the Italian public during the lockdown period, in addition to factors associated with these changes. An online follow-up survey was administered to 439 participants (original sample = 2766), between 28 April and 3 May 2020. A paired sample t-test tested for differences in stress, anxiety, and depression over the period. Multivariate regression models examined associations between sociodemographic variables, personality traits, coping strategies, depression, and stress. Results showed an increase in stress and depression over the lockdown, but not anxiety. Negative affect and detachment were associated with higher levels of depression and stress. Higher levels of depression at the start of the lockdown, as well as fewer coping strategies and childlessness, were associated with increased depression at follow-up, whereas higher levels of stress at the start of the lockdown and younger age were associated with higher stress at follow-up. These results may help us to identify persons at greater risk of suffering from psychological distress as a result lockdown conditions, and inform psychological interventions targeting post-traumatic symptoms.

Health anxiety and attentional bias toward virus-related stimuli during the COVID-19 pandemic.

After the COVID-19 worldwide spread, evidence suggested a vast diffusion of negative consequences on people's mental health. Together with depression and sleep difficulties, anxiety symptoms seem to be the most diffused clinical outcome. The current contribution aimed to examine attentional bias for virus-related stimuli in people varying in their degree of health anxiety (HA). Consistent with previous literature, it was hypothesized that higher HA would predict attentional bias, tested using a visual dot-probe task, to virus-related stimuli. Participants were 132 Italian individuals that participated in the study during the lockdown phase in Italy. Results indicated that the HA level predicts attentional bias toward virus-related objects. This relationship is double mediated by the belief of contagion and by the consequences of contagion as assessed through a recent questionnaire developed to measure the fear for COVID-19. These findings are discussed in the context of cognitive-behavioral conceptualizations of anxiety suggesting a risk for a loop effect. Future research directions are outlined.

Individual Differences, Economic Stability, and Fear of Contagion as Risk Factors for PTSD Symptoms in the COVID-19 Emergency.

On January 30th 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 pandemic a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). Italy has been one of the most affected countries in the world. To contain further spread of the virus, the Italian government has imposed an unprecedented long-period lockdown for the entire country. This dramatic scenario may have caused a strong psychological distress, with potential negative long-term mental health consequences. The aim of the present study is to report the prevalence of high psychological distress due to the COVID-19 pandemic on the general population, especially considering that this aspect is consistently associated with PTSD symptoms. Furthermore, the present study aims to identify the risk factors for high PTSD symptoms, including individual differences and subjective perception of both economic and psychological aspects. We administered an online survey to 1253 participants during the peak period of the contagion in Italy. A logistic regression on the Impact of Event Scale - Revised (IES-R) scores was used to test the risk factors that predict the possibility to develop PTSD symptoms due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Gender (female), lower perceived economic stability, higher neuroticism, and fear and consequences of contagion were predictors of high PTSD symptomatology. The results, highlighted in the present study, extend our understanding of the COVID-19 pandemic's impact on the population's mental health, by identifying individuals at high-risk of developing PTSD. This may help with the implementation of specific protocols to prevent the possibility of developing symptoms of PTSD in target populations.